Probation and Parole: Good or Bad Alternatives to Incarceration Essay

The crime problem is ever before the eyes of the society, and the financial and human costs of attempts to deal with it are the focus of much attention not only from the criminal justice system; it is of hot interest in the media, during public and parliamentary debates (Tonry â€Å"Punishment Policies† 6). Political lead ¬ers, no less than ordinary citizens, are concerned about the hardship and jeopardy that prison life inflicts on criminal offenders, yet they are justifi ¬ably fearful of the consequences for society if criminals are not incarcerated (Geerken & Hayes 552). This ambivalence pervades the central question that the probation/parole system seeks to answer: how can prisoners be released to supervised liv ¬ing in the community without endangering society? As permanent reformation of criminal justice system is on in the U. S. , reformers’ passions and persistence continue unabated. In every state and the federal system, calls are made for sentencing guidelines, mandatory penalties, and â€Å"three-strikes† laws; for more use of community penalties; for crime reduction through deterrence and incapacitation; and for crime reduction through treatment and prevention (Tonry â€Å"Sentencing Matters† 103). Such focus on the issue of alternatives to imprisonment of offenders signifies great importance of the question of efficacy of existing parole/probation system. The purpose of this study is to explore the extent to which parole and probation resolve the problem of declining crime rates and accomplish two-fold task: ensuring smooth adjustment of ex-prisoner/convict to society, while at the same time protecting society. Toward this end we will consider the essence of parole and probation, examine how their effectiveness is evaluated, analyze statistics on the recidivism rates for those on probation and parole, explore factors influencing such rates, and make a conclusion. According to estimations, any given year during last few decades about 4 million offenders in the U. S. are on state or federal probation or parole (Roberts & Stalans 34). It means they are liberated from prison and allowed to stay under surveillance among the rest of the society while they accommodate to life in the free community. Probation and parole are similar in being substitutes for impris ¬onment. Probation offers full-fledged diversion, especially for offenders not previously exposed to incarceration, while parole short ¬ens the exposure to imprisonment (Petersilia 566). Probation is a treatment program in which final action in an adjudicated offender’s case is suspended, so that he remains at liberty, subject to conditions imposed by or for a court, under supervision and guidance of a probation worker. The word â€Å"probation† derives from Latin, its root meaning being â€Å"a period of proving or trial† (Tonry â€Å"Punishment Policies† 7). Probation program is designed to facilitate the social readjustment of offenders. The program rests upon the court’s power to suspend sentence. The probation period is served in the community rather than in a correctional institution. Should the probationer seriously breaches the conditions imposed, probation may be revoked, in which case the court will invoke the appropriate penalty (Petersilia 567). The word â€Å"parole† stems from French, meaning â€Å"promise†. Probably the term was first used in a correctional context in 1847, by Samuel G. Howe, the Boston penal reformer (Champion 163). Like probation, parole is a treatment program. But the parolee, unlike the probationer, has served part of a term in a correctional institution. His release is conditional, contingent upon satisfactory behavior. He is under supervision and treatment by a person trained in parole work (Petersilia 563). Both approaches are less costly to administer than the prisons because full surveillance and provision of basic needs for life are not necessary and be ¬cause human services in the community as those accessible to all residents can become available. To differing degrees, the two approaches contribute to preserving family ties, when such ties exist, and enable willing offenders to provide economic support for dependents (Tonry â€Å"Punishment Policies† 9). The return of convicted offenders to the community under supervision is authorized with some degree of official optimism that the selected individuals will undertake positive behavioral change either because of their self-correction or the influence of benign community forces (Geerken & Hayes 554). A common gauge of probation/parole effectiveness is recidivism of parolees and probationers (Allen 5). Some of them are returned to prison or changed to a different treatment program, depending upon whether they violate conditions of their probation/parole or commit new crimes and are convicted of them. With the rapid growth of community corrections, a greater variety of treatment programs exist to accommodate clients’ needs. Thus, for instance, eligible parolees may be permitted to participate in work or educational release options. Other parolees may be allowed weekend visits with their families. Yet others may be placed in halfway houses where they can readjust to community living from the more highly regimented prison environment (Champion 169). Statistics shows that in the U. S. around 2,000 community correctional programs are functioning, and a number of them are sponsored by the state. Many of the states’ probation and parole agencies currently experience an excessive caseload. For instance, in California and New York often the caseload per one agency officer amounts to 400 clients, although in countryside it is about 25 clients (Petersilia 574). This, unsurprisingly, leads to lowering efficacy of probation/parole programs. Thus, according to various estimations, just no more than 62% of parolees and probationers successfully accomplish their probation/parole period. Empirical studies demonstrate that two thirds of them perpetrate new offences within the period of three years after their sentence completing (Allen 4). Moreover, those on probation/parole often commit grave crimes such as murders; many are under court orders to undergo a course of medical treatment for their alcohol/drug addiction. About 300 thousand probationers are registered in the list of probation/parole agencies as absconders which means, actually, they are just hiding and ignore criminal justice system (Petersilia 571). Scholars exploring the topic of probation/parole effectiveness on the basis of empirical evidence often admit that parole surveillance has been shown to produce an unsatis ¬factory human relationship without proven effect (Tonry â€Å"Sentencing Matters† 132). Thus, as they argue, parole revocation, influenced by bureaucratic considerations, is an unfair process. Parole assistance, impaired by its linkage with surveillance and revocation, may do some good, but there is little evidence to this effect (Champion 173). But because release, surveillance, and assistance are late interventions in a person’s criminal history, parole can be only partially blamed or credited for outcomes – principally the degree of recidivism – that have a complex of causes (Roberts & Stalans 42). So, it is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of probation and parole by themselves. Nevertheless, any evaluation must begin by reviewing the goals of probation and parole. The first and most frequently cited of both are to protect society and to help the person committed offence as it was mentioned above. This means protecting society from crime and helping the probationer/parolee toward a crime-free life, in short, to reduce criminal behavior. No one could quarrel with this goal, but efforts to achieve it are based on the theories of incapacitation and rehabilitation, with their consequent difficulties and costs: preventive incarceration of prisoners who might not return to crime and the errors, waste motion, and false hopes of treatment programs (Geerken & Hayes 551). It is evident, that the most effective community protection is that which results from change within the offender, so that he/she no longer wants to aggress against society. But statistics cited above confirms how difficult is to implement those theories into practice to achieve such inner transformation of ex-offender. In his tough and straight-out article George Allen, governor of Virginia, regards pretty high recidivism rates in the U. S. as a direct result of light sentencing policy and application of probation and parole programs (5). Surveys of public opinion demonstrate that majority in the society agree with such view. Thus, four out of five Americans acknowledge that they would be more likely to vote for a political candidate who advocated harsher sentencing (Roberts & Stalans 31). Allen argues that â€Å"3 out of every 4 violent crimes – murder, armed robbery, rape, assault – are [†¦] committed by repeat offenders†, that is why his administration abolished parole, established the principle of â€Å"truth-in-sentencing†, and amplified by a factor of five the amount of time that violent criminals in fact stay in prison (4). Allen advocates that the only perfect crime-prevention method is incarceration, and argues that measures undertaken by his administration resulted in noticeable decline in all categories of recidivism in Virginia, which for the period of 10 years could prevent about 26 thousand violent offences and save more than $2. 7 billion indirect costs for the state (6). So, as our study revealed, the issue of effectiveness of probation/parole system and its assessment is a very complex one, especially controversial question being effectiveness of existing treatment programs within this system. Approximately two-thirds of all criminal offenders are recidivists. Parole boards are not perfect in their decision-making, and frequently, offenders are released short of serving their full sentences only to commit new crimes within months of being paroled. Much uncertainty of purpose and practice in the decision-making of probation departments and parole boards, waste motion in supervision of probationers/parolees, injus ¬tice in methods of revoking parole, and inadequacy in the provision of community rehabilitative assistance are the issues to be resolved by policy makers in criminal justice system. Hence, advocates of harsher sentencing seem to have some rationality when they argue that violent offenders have to know that the state will not tolerate their crimes, and they will stay in jail for full sentence terms. They ascertain that would be the surer way to protect the citizens from community’s most dangerous members. But, at the same time, effectiveness of existing probation and parole treatment programs could be enhanced which would raise positive results of them in lowering recidivism rates. The measures to improve probation/parole system could include provision of adequate funding (which allow developing comprehensive community-based rehabilitation and intervention programs), ensuring effective management (e. g. educing caseload per probation/parole officer), and elaboration of reliable instruments for assessment of offenders’ risk and needs during decision-making on probation and parole releases. Finally, it seems that if community would be much more involved in helping ex-offenders to adjust to their life at liberty, they would be less willing to commit further crimes. If above-listed would be attained, probation/parole system would undertake the functions of assessment, diagnosis, monitoring, and quality control of interventions while currently it plays the role of just alternative punishment.

World History 2.03 Worksheet

Eric Kennedy A. Complete this chart by filling in the information for each civilization as explained in the assignment. |What|When|Who|Where|Why| Phoenicians|The political system of the Phoenicians allowed each Phoenician city-state to have its own ruler, its own form of government, and its own chosen god to worship. |1200 BCE to 800 BCE|Canaanites|City-states were Tyre and Sidon, present day Lebanon and Syria. |Trade, farming | Hebrews |Each tribe set up separate governments connected by their customs. 2000 BCE|King David|Hebrews migrated to a region known as Canaan, roughly corresponding to present-day Israel, western Jordan, southern Syria, and southern Lebanon. |Free religion| Babylonians |Highly-developed court system. One of its greatest rulers, Hammurabi, developed a code of laws that is now known as Hammurabi's Code. This major collection of laws gives insight into the social structure and economic organization of the civilization. |18th Century BCE until the 6th Century BCE. King Hammurabi|South of modern Baghdad, Iraq, between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. |Slavery | Persians |Common set of weights and measures and a silver and gold coinage system. |560 BCE and lasted until 330 BCE. |The empire was formed from a nomadic people called the Persians and the Medes, both distantly related to the Hittites, Greeks, and Romans. |Asia Minor to India, including present-day Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Military force| Assyrians|Created a large empire known for warfare and cruelty; also built large libraries and created important art and architecture; religion adopted from Babylonians|2000-600BCE; Assyrian farmers date back to 7th century BCE|Semitic people (similar to Hebrews); greatest leader was Sargon II (extended empire, deported people of Israel); strongly influenced by Sumeria; merchants traded throughout the Middle East |Found in what is present day Iraq in the Middle East; Empire eventually extended from present day Turkey to the Pe rsian Gulf|During the height of their empire the Assyrian war machine was the most feared in the Middle East. | B. What are three things that these civilizations have in common that allowed them to be successful? 1. Strong military 2. Farming land 3. Religion

Rising caesarean section rates in the developed world- what needs to Scholarship Essay

Rising caesarean section rates in the developed world- what needs to be done - Scholarship Essay Example These include: maternal health, age, education, marital status, ethnic background and socio-economic perspectives. Women in the developed world are generally career oriented, and therefore, usually delay child birth. Thus the age and the health factors have impeded the natural process of giving birth in such women. Elective C-section is also opted for by such women because they find it easier to get an appointment for a C-section rather than waiting for their water to break, or for the labour to begin unexpectedly. The fear of labour pains forces many women to choose elective C-section. Education of pregnant women is essential, so as to encourage them to go through the natural process of child birth. Media can play an important role in advocating vaginal birth and in preventing unnecessary C-sections in the developed world. The socio-economic factor of the women in the developed world is pushing the rates even higher. The cost of a C-section is higher than a vaginal delivery- no wonder how private hospitals pay hefty fees to their surgeons! Insurance coverage is a compelling factor for the physicians to opt for C-section because the majority of the litigation cases are based on the claim that a timely C-section was not performed. The health insurance policies in the developed countries deal strictly with cases of head injuries or cerebral palsy that may occur during vaginal birth. ‘But fear of malpractice and complications on the part of physicians also has increased the use caesareans unnecessarily, Flamm says. On average, 90% of breach-babies are delivered by C-section, as are half of twins. C-section rates also are higher among women with any history of sexually transmitted disease. But the single greatest factor in rising rates, Flamm says, is fear of malpractice suits.’ (Lowers, 37) The rise in the C-section rates in the developed world has become a cause of concern. To a certain extent, abdominal birth, or C-section birth is taking over the

Children today waste too much time playing video games Essay

Children today waste too much time playing video games - Essay Example Children virtually spend their summer vacations playing these games. About half of all children have a video game player or a computer on which to play the video game and parents do not restrict the types of game the children play. AskDr.Sears.com reports eighty percent of most popular video games feature violence and aggressiveness. Surveys also suggest, by the time a typical American child reaches the age of eighteen, he has seen 200,000 acts of violence and 40,000 murders on screen. According to Maney (2005) video games might be the best things that children can do to ensure their future success. Maney quotes Steve Johnson, who says that at every point while playing the video games one has to make decisions. One has to think about patterns, long-term goals, and resources. These help to take a decision and depending upon the feedback from the game one again has to adjust the decision. Maney confirms that games like Halo 2, EverQuest or the lurid Grand Theft Auto hone the kind of decision-making abilities that define a successful person. Parents often insist that children should spend time reading books rather than playing video games. Johnson disagrees saying whatever the benefits of reading, you are following someone else’s decision. Video games have been linked to violence and aggressive behavior. Others believe that video games provide an outlet for aggression and frustration. According to the journal American Family Physician, studies have not been able to show concrete evidence of behaviour being affected due to violent video games. This argument can be countered by the violence and blood bath that children are exposed to, in books like King Lear and Lord of the Flies. They challenge the belief that books are automatically better than video games. Dr. John C Beck, author of Got Games, believes video games foster team skills (cited by Powell S, 2005). He refutes the view that it

Dicussion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Dicussion - Assignment Example In that case, then the law and the government in general may put limits to bringing out such issues when it enforces laws against expression of religious controversies. On the contrary, some religious behaviors and practices may become a threat to the society and general relationships of people holding different religious views in the same society. For example, people from different religions may hold too much from their religious beliefs to an extent that they do not try to understand the essence of other people’s religions (Washingtonpost, 2007). This may result in conflicts based on religious aspect and views among people in the society. Therefore, cases like clashes and other religious wrangles may erupt which poses a threat to the well being of the society. For example, cases like terrorism may be due to extreme religious behaviors among certain individuals in a society. The government therefore, needs to consider other people’s opinions and expressions when they have anything to say concerning religious matters. This will then avoid religious conflicts that may pose threat to the society. Washingtonpost. On Faith: A Conversation on Religion with Jon Meacham and Sally Quinn question for April 19, 2007. Accessed on 31st October, 2014 from

Fostering a Learning Organisation for Small Community Tabloid Essay

Fostering a Learning Organisation for Small Community Tabloid - Essay Example A new management was installed to carry out company restructure. The takeover management was resolute to achieve a bit more than company survival but to be a source of insight through business leadership. A first concern was whether the paper made a connection with the community, and an organizational assessment was conducted. The appraisal should determine the possibility of a radical turnaround, directing financial sustainability and professional management. Sometime in the 1990s, the newspaper weekly was formed through the convictions of two brothers who were once newspaper boys roaming the city. These days, they are men of political ambitions, and the paper advocates to shape collective expression. The company had undergone a rough evolution typical of small organizations, survived a series of turnovers, low liquidity; high debt and structure transitions from corporate to proprietorship, to the foundation, led activities. From the ownership end, there seemed a constant lack of commitment and a few notable failures. Small organizations form the backbone of the economy. Of a total of 811,592 business organizations, 61,762 are recognized as small enterprises and 743,949 as micro-enterprises. While the segment employs 69.9%, the rather huge amount of resource input equals an economic value of only 32% of GNP. Poor productivity arises out of the lack of business introspect and foresight, insufficient use of technology and poor capital formation. Of the recent four years, the community tabloid operated on a funding of 50 thousand monthly, and a three-term provincial Governor was its principal funder. The medium made up eight pages and was circulated within provincial borders, having a population size of about 320 thousand. Company revenues listed 570,274 covering seven months, with the portion of it uncollected or ‘arranged’ comprising 21%.

Logistics Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Logistics Management - Essay Example You are a consultant who has been asked to write a report that discusses what logistic management would involve for clothing manufacturing firms sourcing in the Pacific Rim. The objectives of the report are to explain with reference to the literature the logistics requirements for getting the supplies from the Pacific Rim to Australia, write an action plan that lists the steps of logistics management, describe each of the steps by stating what will be done and why it will be done, and discuss the constraints of logistics management in meeting the clothing firms' sourcing needs. This is to be accomplished thorugh writing an academic report; providing an executive summary, introduction, and conclusion; using the report as a way to demonstrate knowledge of the course content, including the textbook and additional readings that have been utilized, using appropriate headings, using 8 references, using minimal direct quotes, using text referencing and a reference list; and ensuring all aspects of the marketing guide are satisfied. Global sourcing is a procurement strategy aimed at exploiting global efficiencies in production. While a global sourcing process is usually initiated as a mechanism of exploiting cross-geographic arbitrages (simply put, identifying cheaper global sources), it is now a standard step in the global expansion of firms. Global sourcing advantages extend to identifying alternate supplier sources, utilizing buffer capacities and taking advantage of specific geographical talent pools (Wikipedia 2008). The textbook containing this case study also encompasses the entire concept of the supply chain. The supply chain can be defined as: A supply chain, logistics network, or supply network is the system of organizations, people, activities, information and resources involved in moving a product or service from supplier to customer. Supply chain activities transform raw materials and components into a finished product that is delivered to the end customer. Supply chains link value chains. A typical supply chain begins with the extraction of raw material and includes several production links, for instance; component construction, assembly and merging before moving onto several layers of storage facilities of ever decreasing size and ever more remote geographical locations, and finally reaching the consumer. Many of the exchanges encountered in the supply chain will therefore be between different companies who will seek to maximize their revenue within their sphere of interest, but may have little or no knowledge or interest in the remaining players in the supply chain. (Wikipedia 2008) The purpose of this report is to discuss what logistics management would involve for clothing manufacturing firms sourcing in the Pacific Rim. In doing so, the purpose is to explain with reference to the literature the logistics requirements for getting the supplies from the Pacific Rim to Australia, write an Action Plan that lists the steps of logistics management, describe each of the steps by stating what will be done and why it will be done, and discuss the constraints of logistics management in meeting the clothing firms' sourcing needs. Given in the case study is that: Global sourcing has become a widely